How do biologists strike a productive balance between descriptive natural history and manipulative experiments in the lab or field? Should we bring back species to areas where they’ve gone extinct and what values do we use to make these decisions? What is wildness and how do we cultivate it?
On this episode, we talk with Harry Greene, a herpetologist and adjunct professor of Integrative Biology at the University of Texas at Austin, whose distinguished career has spanned decades. Harry is an E.O. Wilson Award recipient and also received the PEN Literary award for his book, Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. In the episode, we talk with Harry about the importance of natural history to biology. We also tackle the topic of rewilding, a type of biological restoration that involves translocating species where they still occur to regions where they no longer are found, in order to restore ecosystem function. Harry talks about how his views on rewilding have changed over time, including how rewilding ourselves could improve our health and happiness
Cover art: Keating Shahmehri. Find a transcript of this episode on our website.

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Rewilding Biology (Ep 116)

What is an agent, and does an organism have to be conscious to be one? How does organismal agency affect evolution?
In this episode, we talk with Samir Okasha, a Professor of Philosophy of Science at the University of Bristol. Samir studies fundamental philosophical questions in evolutionary biology, most notably how selection acts on various levels of biological organization. Our discussion focuses on his book “Agents and Goals in Evolution,” in which he unpacks various definitions of agency and outlines their evolutionary implications. We talk about whether genes and groups of individuals can be agents, whether agency is heritable, where variation in agency comes from, and the relationship between agency and adaptation.
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Does a porpoise have a purpose? Agency and goals in evolution (Ep 115)

If the tape of life were replayed, how recognizable would today’s species and ecosystems be? How and why does power increase over evolutionary time? How have humans unleashed so much power, and what are the consequences of that power for life on Earth? 
In this episode, we talk with Geerat Vermeij, a paleoecologist and evolutionary biologist in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at UC Davis. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and has published over 200 papers and five books. Our conversation focuses on his most recent book: “The Evolution of Power: A New Understanding of the History of Life.” In it, he asserts that power, the amount of energy an organism can take up or expend per unit time, has increased steadily during the history of life on Earth. On the episode, we discuss the idea of power, how species evolve more power, and how humans have unleashed more power than any other species (and whether we need to work on curbing this power). 
Cover art: Keating Shahmehri. Find a transcript of this episode on our website.

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How power explains the history of life (Ep 114)

How are cephalopods like us, but also completely alien? How can they become so intelligent when they have such short lives? How do they coordinate a distributed set of brains?
In this episode, we talk with Danna Staaf, a science communicator and marine biologist with a lifelong love of cephalopods. Danna earned a PhD from Stanford University studying baby squid, and she has written several cephalopod-themed books. Our conversation focuses on Danna’s most recent, The Lives of Octopuses and Their Relatives: A Natural History of Cephalopods, a beautiful exploration of the diversity of these wacky, wonderful creatures. We discuss cephalopod evolution, morphology, and reproduction, focusing on several fun facts that you can pull out at your next dinner party.
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Cephalopods: aliens among us (Ep 113)

Does biological plasticity have a cost? Are there evolutionary consequences of plasticity and of organisms acting on their environments?
In this episode, we talk with Sonia Sultan, the Alan M. Dachs Professor of Science in the Department of Biology at Wesleyan University. Sonia has spent her career studying the interplay between organisms and their environment. Specifically, she studies how environmental conditions influence the development of organisms, and when and how these developmental trajectories can include niche construction. Sonia refers to this complexity as “entanglement,” genes and environments working together to alter phenotypic expression, but then variation in phenotypic expression feeds back on environments and genes to alter evolution. She put this perspective to the test in a recent paper she coauthored with Mike Wade in the Journal Evolution & Development. In it, Sonia and Mike took a new perspective on the Price equation, finding that niche construction and other forms of organismal agency can change evolutionary outcomes.
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The Entangled Organism (Ep 112)

How do small, founding populations establish and thrive in new places? What is biocontrol, and how is it carried out responsibly?
In this episode, we talk with Ruth Hufbauer, a Professor of Applied Evolutionary Ecology at Colorado State University about the ways that organisms successfully establish new populations in new places. Ruth uses lab experiments on Tribolium flour beetles to understand how evolution facilitates or impedes the founding of populations. In our conversation with Ruth, we discuss range expansions, species invasions, and biocontrol among other topics. Biocontrol is of particular interest to Ruth, as it can be an effective way to control pests, but also comes with some risks that the control agents themselves get out of control. We also explore the genetic paradox of invasion, and talk about many potential mechanisms that could help populations to quickly spread to a new place.
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Evolution of the Invaders (Ep 111)

How do biologists categorize species? What’s the best and quickest way to describe millions of unknown species?
On this episode, we talk with Michael Sharkey, an entomologist and taxonomist who spent much of his career at the University of Kentucky, and is now the director of the Hymenoptera Institute. Since its inception, taxonomy has relied on careful morphological analysis of specimens to delineate species. In the past few decades, the COI “barcode” region of the mitochondrial genome has become a key additional piece of genetic evidence used to characterize species. In a much-discussed 2021 paper, Michael and colleagues used barcoding to identify over 400 new species of braconid wasps. The backlash from scientists who adhere to traditional taxonomic methods was swift, and at times harsh, with critics claiming that relying primarily on COI to define species is simply unacceptable. Sharkey, however, remains convinced that taxonomy should embrace molecular tools, especially because millions of species are yet to be discovered and rates of extinction are ramping up. We talk with Michael about how many insect species there are, how barcoding can make taxonomy accessible to more scientists, and what the future of taxonomy might look like. 
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Tempest in a barcode: how rapidly can we (and should we) identify new species? (Ep 110)

How do living things exert agency in a world of strict physical and chemical laws? Do humans have free will? 
In this episode, we talk with Kevin Mitchell, an Associate Professor of Genetics and Neuroscience at Trinity College Dublin. The question of free will has been debated for decades by thinkers in physics, philosophy, psychology, and, more recently, biology. In his new book, Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will, Kevin argues that agency is a fundamental characteristic of living systems and is essential for survival. In the episode, we discuss how agency emerges despite constraints imposed by basic physical and chemical principles, and how agency confers on organisms the power to shape both themselves and their environments. We also discuss practical approaches to studying agency by leveraging new technologies and by seeing through underlying assumptions and traditional reductionism. 
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Nothing in biology makes sense except through time (Ep 109)

How has evolutionary biology evolved over time? What does it take to study evolution in natural populations?

On this episode, we talk with Erik Svensson, an evolutionary biologist at Lund University, Sweden. Historically, evolutionary theory has focused largely on population and quantitative genetics, but the complexity of interactions between genetic variation, organisms, and their environments poses challenges to testing the theory in nature. In a recent perspective, Erik revisits a landmark 1983 paper by Russ Lande and Steven Arnold, “The measurement of selection on correlated characters,” that fundamentally altered how evolutionary biologists study evolution in natural populations. Erik digs into that transition and into the ongoing challenges of studying evolution in the wild. Yet, some biologists argue that such approaches fail to capture phenomena such as phenotypic plasticity, niche construction and epigenetic inheritance, and have called for an even broader update to evolutionary theory. We discuss whether it will be possible to develop a single cohesive theory of life, drawing from Erik’s research and from our own conversations with past guests.
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The dialectical biologists: challenges of studying evolution in nature (Ep 108)

How can we reconcile the evolutionary problem of cooperation? What can social amoebae tell us about the origins of multicellularity?
In this episode, we talk to Joan Strassmann and David Queller, professors at Washington University in St. Louis, about the evolution of cooperation and conflict. From social insects to humans, we can find instances of individuals seemingly sacrificing fitness for the good of the group. But, truly altruistic behavior poses a problem for evolutionary biologists because it challenges the assumption that natural selection favors individuals over groups. We talk with Joan and David about their work with the social amoeba, Dictyostelium discoideum. This species is known for its remarkable developmental cycle: when there is no more to eat, the starving amoebae aggregate into a slug-like organism, which then forms a fruiting body that releases spores in hopes of dispersing to a better place. The problem, evolutionarily, is that only a fraction of the cells in the fruiting body get to live on through offspring. This facultative lifestyle and the ability to combine genetically different cells makes D. discoideum a prime study species for understanding how relatedness impacts cooperation and conflict and the possible origins of multicellular organisms.
Towards the end of the episode, we also talk about Joan’s new book Slow Birding: The Art and Science of Enjoying the Birds in Your Own Backyard.
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Cooperation versus conflict and the path to multicellularity (Ep 107)

Can we predict evolutionary outcomes if we know starting conditions? Do the products of evolution in nature differ from those studied in well-controlled lab experiments?
On this episode, we talk to Katie Peichel, head of the Division of Evolutionary Ecology at the University of Bern, Switzerland, and Andrew Hendry, professor in the Department of Biology at McGill University, Canada. Katie and Andrew are part of a massive research team working on the evolution of threespine sticklebacks as they are reintroduced into lakes in Alaska. Sticklebacks have been a favorite species for evolutionary biologists since almost the origins of modern evolutionary theory. Traits like spine size and lateral plate armor evolve rapidly when populations colonize new habitats, leading populations to barely resemble one another. Unlike traditional evolutionary experiments, which try to infer what occurred in the past, the Alaska  project is tracking in unparalleled detail changes in the phenotypes and genotypes of fish that went into each lake population. 
We talk to Katie and Andrew about the origins of this incredible project, the pros and cons of different approaches to studying evolution, and the need for long-term experimental studies of evolution in the wild. This is the first of a series of episodes we will be doing on the Alaskan research project, so stay tuned!
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Long-term experimental evolution in the wild (Ep 106)

On this episode, we talk with Alina Chan, postdoc at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard and co-author with Matt Ridley of Viral: The Search for the Origin of COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 could have plausibly jumped into humans in Wuhan via one of two paths. The first is zoonotic transfer from wild bats to humans, possibly via an intermediate animal host. The second is some kind of lab accident: researchers working on a SARS-CoV-2-like virus accidentally became infected with it and then transmitted it to others in Wuhan. Although early discussions among virologists reached the consensus that the origin was almost surely zoonotic, more recent discussions have started to take the lab-leak theory seriously. Unfortunately, we still lack conclusive evidence in support of either hypothesis. And, as public leaders have co-opted the investigation for nonscientific reasons, the subject of COVID’s origin has become practically taboo.
Alina’s approach is to “follow the data,” leaving no stone unturned, and we believe that it is our responsibility as scientists to do the same. We talk to Alina about her book, as well as the many new things that have been revealed about COVID’s origins since its 2021 publication. Towards the end of the chat, we discuss the implications of what we’ve learned about SARS-CoV-2 for how we should prepare for and deal with future pandemics.
We hope that this episode inspires you to seek the best possible explanation of COVID origins. Please write to info@bigbiology.org and tell us what you think, and share with friends and family. 
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Follow the data: the search for COVID’s origin (Ep 105)

Season 6 of Big Biology will kick off at the beginning of September - woohoo! Before then, we have a quick message to share:
We’re looking for a new producer to join the Big Biology team! If you are a passionate team player with experience in podcast production, then please consider applying! The producer position is a part-time, remote position. Please send us an email at info@bigbiology.org to learn more.

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Big Bio Bonus Episode: We’re Hiring!

Why can some animals regrow limbs while others can’t? Will understanding regeneration in other vertebrates help us regrow arms one day?
Our intern team has taken over the channel to talk about one of their favorite biology topics, limb regeneration! In the episode, Dayna and Kyle break down the mechanisms of regeneration and discuss why some animals can regrow organs and limbs, and why the evolutionary paths of other animals may have led to alternative responses to limb loss.
Thanks for listening! This episode of Little Biology was written and presented by Dayna De La Cruz and Kyle Smith. If you enjoyed it, please give them a hand!
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Little Biology: Why can’t I regrow my arm?

Where does biological innovation come from? Why do some innovations wait millions of years for their spotlight?
Life must constantly innovate for evolution to occur, but many forms of biological innovation often lie dormant, sometimes for millions of years. In this episode, we speak to Andreas Wagner about his recent book, Sleeping Beauties: The Mystery of Dormant Innovations in Nature and Culture. Andreas is a professor at the Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies at the University of Zurich in Switzerland. In the book, Andreas explains how novel traits sometimes have to wait until the environment changes to become useful, leading to speciation or offering novel solutions to ecological problems. These long fuses are also evident in our own history, namely the life-changing technologies that we invent but don’t fully exploit until the right social or economic context arises.
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Sleeping beauties: the mystery of dormant innovations in nature and culture (Ep 104)

What makes a pest? Why are some animals revered in one culture and vilified in another? How do our ways of life bring us into conflict versus companionship, and what do these interactions mean for us and them?
Rats, squirrels, coyotes, pigeons...often, we view animals like these as pests. We usually don't like them, even try to get rid of them…but what makes a species a pest? On this episode, we talk with Bethany Brookshire about her new book, Pests: How Humans Create Animal Villains. Bethany is a science journalist interested in human-animal conflict, and in the book, she tells the story of how both historical and cultural context explains why the same animal species can be viewed as a friend or foe. 
Bethany is also the host of the podcast Science for the People - check them out!
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Pest-o, change-o: how culture shapes our view of animal commensals (Ep 103)

What is inherency? What are the potential flaws with our understanding of biological function?
On this episode, we talk with Stuart Newman, professor at New York Medical College. In his recent paper, “Inherency and agency in the origin and evolution of biological functions,” Stuart argues against the commonly held view that functions of traits necessarily arise from the process of natural selection. He instead advocates for an alternative called inherency, which suggests that groups of cells naturally possess traits that determine their potential morphology, which can then be modified further by natural selection. He supports this idea with examples of extant species - placozoans and sponges - that closely resemble the earliest animals. We discuss Stuart’s provocative paper, the concept of inherency, and its potential role in evolution.
Cover art by Keating Shahmehri. Find a transcript of this episode on ⁠our website⁠.

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Inherency in evolution (Ep 102)

What is NEON? What hopes and concerns do we have for large-scale research projects in ecology?
On this episode of Big Biology, we talk about the challenges of doing…big biology! The National Ecological Observatory Network, or NEON, is a US National Science Foundation-funded project that has started collecting massive amounts of data from terrestrial and freshwater habitats across a network of sites distributed across the United States. Scott Collins, a professor at the University of New Mexico, and Alan Knapp, a professor at Colorado State University, have been involved in developing, promoting, and sometimes criticizing NEON. We discussed with them the successes and potential of NEON and the major challenges and controversies that it has faced.  We also talked about how they believe NEON can have positive impacts in the future.
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NEON: The promises and challenges of large-scale ecological research (Ep 101)

Big Biology celebrates its 100th episode! 
You’re only 100 once, and though we hope there will be many more episodes to come, we wanted to celebrate this milestone with something special. A recurring theme from many of our conversations with guests on the show has been agency. This is a BIG and oftentimes controversial topic in biology, and in this episode we try to pull together the different threads from our past guests’ approaches to agency and discuss what agency means and why we think it is so important for us to better understand it. 
We also hear from our recent addition to the podcast team, Cameron Ghalambor, who has very different thoughts on agency to Art and Marty, making for a fascinating discussion. 
Of course, we don’t have all the answers, but that’s never been what this show is about. It’s an invitation to think and converse about the biggest questions in biology. And that’s exactly what we do here.

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A retrospective on agency (Ep 100)

On this episode, we take a break from the regular format to talk with Itai Yanai and Martin Lercher of The Night Science Podcast, a show that explores the creative side of science with guests from across the globe. Itai is a professor in the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology at the NYU School of Medicine, and Martin is a professor in both the Institute for Computer Science and the Department of Biology at Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf. We had a great time chatting with them about our respective podcast experiences, trading tips and reflecting on our passion for science communication and the ways that it has impacted our own research.
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